Annotated Bibliography

History Research:

  • Shaw-Smith, David. Traditional Crafts of Ireland. Thames & Hudson, 2003.

Household crafts such as spinning became associated with poverty in the second half of the 19th century and were avoided until a recent traditional resurgence in Ireland.

Wool spinning has been practiced in Ireland for at least 3000 years. The original breed of sheep used for wool is now extinct – the two modern day wool breeds are the Galway sheep and the Mountain Blackface sheep. Galways are used for the traditional Aran sweater and Blackface for carpets.

Until recently, spinning and weaving was considered a woman’s craft.

The introduction of the flax wheel in Ireland gave rise to the tradition of homespun tweed in Co. Donegal. This portable wheel turned traditional spinning into a social affair.

This book was a good introduction to traditional crafts in Ireland. It didn’t prove as much detail as I needed, but it was a great place to start. It also had excellent visuals that aided in understanding the craft. 

  • Schevill, Margot Blum, Janet Catherine Berlo, and Edward B. Dwyer. Textile Traditions of Mesoamerica and the Andes: An Anthology. University of Texas Press, 2010. 
(Intro)
“When a fine Maya weaving from Chiapas was marketed like an art object, a fair price was forthcoming. The middleman in store or market situation needs to buy a textile cheaply in order to add on a percentage for profit.” (p. 10)
In the Andes, textile traditions have endured often in the form of tradition for its own sake. This has been used as a way of connecting to a pre-Columbus era.
The new demand for artisanal products have made the weaving industry, particularly that of Teotitlan del Valle, Mexico, in one that is versatile yet still traditionally inspired.
There are often two textile systems in any given region: “Indigenous” and  “non-indigenous.” However, the two are not mutually exclusive and often borrow aspects from one another. Though, one does tend to be more desirable than the other depending on the region.
(Chapter 7)
Textiles are an important way to establish identity as an “insider” or an “outsider” in Andean culture
To the people of Abancay, Peru, the process of locally woven textiles is an essential part of many different aspects of life. “Clothing surpasses the definition of self and enters into the real of identity.” (p. 232)
(Chapter 12)
The Andean people used textile weaving to not only express social status, but also to share ideas in the same way that the Western world uses the written word.
  • Sharma, Yovesh Chandra. Cotton Khadi in Indian Economy. Navajivan Publishing House, 1999.
(Overview)
“Khadi means any cloth woven on handloom in India from cotton, silk, or woolen yarn hand-spun from India or from a mixture of any two or all of such yarns.” (Khadi and Village Industries Commission Act of 1956)
Khadi production is present in almost all states of India and is responsible for large amounts of employment to needy artisans living in rural areas
(Chapter 1 – A Historical Review)
Cotton is believed to have originated in India with cultivation dating back 8000 years
The rise of the British Empire in India and the invention of the steam engine in the 18th century shifted India’s main export from a finished, hand-spun, hand-woven product to raw material sent to England’s textile mills
During Britain’s colonization of India, laws were imposed that made Indian khadi textiles less profitable to produce in order to encourage the purchase of English products.
Swadeshi Movement – encourage the people of Indian to purchase goods made in India only
(Chapter 2 – Gandhian Khadi)
“I saw in a flash that without the spinning wheel there was no Swaraj (self-rule)” – Mahatma Gandhi
Mahtma Gandhi started the khadi program in 1919 in order to provide self-employment for the pauperized rural villages in the country and saw it as a form of non-violent revolution against foreign presence in India
“The Good Duchess of Sutherland saw the miserable plight of the poor islanders of Hebrides, and placed spinning wheels and looms at their disposal” (p. 12) (Really, really important parallel between Indian and Scottish textiles!!!! Two colonized indigenous cultures!!) “the citizens of Manchester, including, mill-owners, do wear the hand-spun stuff prepared by the Hebrides people, even at three times the cost of the mill stuff” 
“Ghandiji often said that India did not require mass-production, but production by the masses” (p.13)
The idea of Gandhian Khadi is to distribute wealth before it is produced – instead of having cotton mass produced by machinery and profiting only the owner of the mill, each khadi producer is self employed and profits off of what they themselves can produce
Khadi is essential to decentralize the textile industry
Because khadi became associated with independence from reliance on foreign economies, it became a symbol of freedom from British rule.
(Chapter 3 – Khadi in Independent India)
After India won ‘Swaraj’ (freedom) there was some public debate about the relevance of khadi in India
New government officials understood the relevance of khadi for providing short-term self-employment, however they did not put much emphasis in the philosophy of non-violence that the khadi movement was previously associated with
Government came out with it’s first Industrial Policy in 1948 – the new policy in 1956 contained support for village industries through restricting the volume of production of counterpart large-scale sectors.
 This book was my go-to source for all things having to do with khadi cotton. Not all of the chapters were relevant to what I was studying, but literally every aspect of khadi cotton is covered in the book.
  • Society, Irish Homespun. “II.Iii. Account Book of the Irish Homespun Society,” n.d.
Muriel Gahan – played a large role in promoting traditional crafts in Ireland
  • Labat, Karen L., Nancy J. Nelson, and Goldstein Gallery. Contemporary Irish Textile Art: The Women of Annaghmakerrig. Goldstein Gallery, University of Minnesota, 1996.
Tweed was traditionally made from homespun wool of blackface sheep and dyed using herbs native to Irish landscape. Women were responsible for spinning and dyeing while men were responsible for weaving – largely social practices for communities.
Today, women are not as involved in the production of tweed as imported machine-spun wool often takes their place.
Irish linen is world-renowned for its quality – originating in Ulster. Women of a parish will gather together to spin on light-weight flax wheels.
The Arts and Crafts movement of the late 19th century led to the formation of artistic embroidery groups – an example of textile crafts for the purpose of art rather than functionality
Aran sweaters are often off-white in color because of the natural oil of the sheep – this creates a water and wind resistant layer for the sweater.
Knitting is a communal activity – women gathered to share skills and pass on talent to younger generations.
Textile traditions often incorporated Irish themes and were often only recognizable to the Irish themselves, though the crafts saw worldwide recognition.
The mutual emphasis in crafts and the communal nature of these practices in both Northern Ireland and the Republic was a way for the two different countries to mend ties after the troubles through shared skills.
It is uncommon to find an Irish textile art that does not have a function or does not invite touch and interaction
This book was inspiring to me because it not only covered the history of textile art in Ireland, but also showed it’s impact on inspiration today. I found it interesting that the art displayed in the exhibit was all “functional” in some way. It was perhaps even more intriguing, however, that this “functional” art was hanging on walls and not actually being used at all.
 
  • Thompson, Angela. Textiles of Central and South America. Crowood, 2006.
(Overview)
Textiles in pre-Hispanic Central and South America often took the place of currency
“Even at a ‘beginner’ stage, the feel of the fibers and the way they react to one another gives a message from the fingers to the brain that is never forgotten”
Because tourism has become the main purpose for traditional crafts – the craftsman know they can downplay the quality of art, resulting in a loss of overall quality of craftsmanship over time
(Chapter 1: Historical Background)
Spanish “treasure hunters” came to the Peruvian Andes in the mid-19th century – they took the gold used as offerings to the native gods and discarded the textile offerings
“Prime importance” of textiles is given to the Paracas culture who inhabited Peru from 700B BCE to 1100 CE
Woven textiles of the Paracas are often found in burial sites depicting a figure that is flying
“By the ninth century BCE herds of llama and alpaca had been domesticated and mixtures of cameloid fibres were used in woven textiles, replacing the fiber and hair of earlier times.”

[Early History of Harris Tweed] 

“Cottage industries” – business carried out in someone’s home

Most textiles in Scotland were carried out by cottage industries before the industrial revolution

The Dunmore family of the Hebrides was the proprietor of the original Harris Tweed – a prominent family that promoted craftsmanship amongst the inhabitants of the Hebrides to help them recover from the blow of the potato famine in 1846

The Duchess of Sutherland also played a role in the crafts in Harris and supposedly had connections with the “the Highland Home Industries” shop (parallel to the Country Shop in Ireland?)
In 1889 tweed could be sold for 3s/6d per yard, which was a very high price for the time
“The writer can trace the industry in Park back to the 1880s, and my own mother made Harris Tweed at Calbost on her own loom about 1890 with the small loom (beart bheag), which was the only loom then in existence. It was operated by means of throwing the shuttle (which was a sheep’s shin bone) with the one hand and catching it with the other, and firing it back through the ‘alt’.”
I just made the connection that the rural areas that keep textile traditions alive are also the ones that still speak native languages – at least in the British Isles but I have a hunch that I can find connections with India and Peru as well 
High Home Industries was a chain of shops that helped to popularize the tweed industry around Scotland
“Croft” -a small rented farm, especially one in Scotland, comprising a plot of arable land attached to a house and with a right of pasturage held in common with other such farms
“Crofter’s Agency of Edinburgh” marketed crofters tweed in the south
“It was the early years of the present century which saw the first changes from hand spun yarn to imported mill spun yarn, and therefore the establishment of the small producers who manufactured on a larger scale than the spinning wheel was capable of. This departure from tradition was the result of the market demand for Harris Tweed, which apparently could not be met from the previous laborious methods”
[Tweed and Textiles from Early Times to the Present Day]
Spinning tool similar to those they use today have been found in tombs in Lewis dating back 2000 years
The wool was always dyed, never the finished fabric
Lichen was the most popular dye – “crotal” was scraped from the rocks in the area (Same as in Donegal) 
Crotal makes a reddish brown color
“A list of over 40 vegetable dyes is given in Professor Scott’s 1914 report ‘Home Industries in the Highland and Islands’, a library book.”
Early 1930’s the Harris Tweed industry bought crotal at 5 – 12p per bag
Families often hired maidservants to hand card wool until the mid 20th century when they began sending their wool to mainland wool carding mills
“The first carding mill in Harris was erected by Sir Samuel Scott the proprietor of North Harris in 1900 for the benefit of the local people.”
Money was not a common currency amongst crofters in Lewis and instead shopkeepers often accepted trades – landlords demanded agriculture instead of annual rent
Harris Tweed was trademarked in 1910
“By the end of the 1920s and early in the 1930s elements in the industry agitated to have the definition of the ‘Orb’ trade mark amended in order to recognise the prevailing situation in the Hebridean Harris Tweed industry which was the fact that tweed manufactured exclusively from mill spun yarn was freely sold as Harris Tweed for decades and was therefore accepted as such by the buying public and therefore mill spun yarn should qualify for the ‘Orb’ trade marks. A strong Hebridean mill owners lobby agitated for the exclusive admission of island mill spun yarn and the rejection of mainland mill spun yarn.”
Orb trademark was amended to allow island mill spun yarn to be stamped in 1933
Small producers where eliminated in the 1964 Lord Hunter judgement
[History of Harris Tweed]
Original name of Harris Tweed was ‘Clò-Mòr’
“The activities of these and other people on behalf of the cottage industry were motivated by considerations other than personal profit. It is obvious that the main consideration was social and economic, the welfare of the ordinary people of the Outer Hebrides. It was an industry of the people, for the people, and in this respect was unique.”
Imitation Harris Tweed done on a power mill began to emerge in the market by the end of the 19th century, ranging as far as markets in Japan
Orb trademark – garment made entirely by hand
Most of the original Harris Tweed was made using wool spun in mills on the mainland
It was very useful to me to read writing from the perspective of being pro-growth of the industry and pro-mass production. An interesting connection that I made while reading was that it seems like those who have supported the growth of the Harris Tweed industry are those that have little to do with it’s cultural heritage. Instead, they were often English landlords or wealthy merchants who wanted a product that met the demands of people in the South
Spinning wheel build varies from region to region
Ulster imported more than 6000 portable flax spinning wheels to Co. Donegal in order to encourage flax growth and linen production. However, rural Irish communities adapted them to spin wool.
Dyes are gathered from herbs, household vegetables, lichens and more
Traditionally, most parts of the fleece are used but processing varies from county to county
This video was really interesting to watch – it was filmed in the 70’s and had the telltale signs of the folk revival movement of that time. It appeared they didn’t have to do too much doctoring in order to make the Irish art of wool spinning look traditional, though they did conveniently leave out the existence of textile mills in the country.
  • “Khan Academy: The Paracas Textile ” Khan Academy. Accessed January 24, 2018.  
Found on the South coast of Peru in 1938, nearly 2000 years old
Originally attributed to the Paracas culture, however scholars have recently decided it belongs to the Nasca culture – related to the Paracas but slightly later in history
So thoroughly completed that it is nearly impossible to distinguish a “front” and “back” to the textile
32 geometric faces created by “warp wrapping” – colored fleece is woven around sections of cotton warp before weaving
“crossed-looping” resembles knitting but is achieved with a needle
Combination of materials and techniques used in the cloth suggests extensive trading – cotton was grown in coastal valleys while wool bearing creatures where found in the high-elevation of the Andes
“When they depicted clothing, Paracas and Nazca artists often added a face, or an animal body to the loose ends of fabric hanging behind a wearer. This artistic convention seems to suggest the lively movements of cloth fluttering behind a wearer, and hints that these ancient people considered cloth a precious carrier of vitality: an interpretation that seems warranted because this vibrant textile gives us such an evocative and animated glimpse into their world.”
This article really put into perspective how deeply textiles are rooted into Andean culture. It was particularly useful to me to be able to see images of the incredible techniques used by those who existed 2000 years before heavy machinery was introduced into the textile world.
“Spinning the Industrial Revolution | Oxford Economic and Social History Working Papers | Working Papers.” Accessed February 28, 2018. https://www.economics.ox.ac.uk/oxford-economic-and-social-history-working-papers/spinning-the-industrial-revolution.
Purpose of this paper is to prove that the current ‘high-wage economy’ explanation of the innovation that led to industrialize spinning is not accurate
Often the handloom weaver and coal miner are the martyrs of the Industrial Revolution – but the hand spinner is left out.
Hand spinners were almost exclusively women and children who spun alongside domestic work – this made their occupation easy to overlook.
Robert Allen hypothesizes that high wages in British economy led to invention and innovation.
“Spinning was not an easy task, nor was it readily combined with childcare and domestic work, as often assumed”
Spinning was a massively growing sector in pre-industrial Britain. By 1750 over a million women and children were classified as spinners and their earnings constituted more than a third of poor families’ incomes.
In the time period from 1588 – 1615, spinners could spin and card 5.6 lbs of wool per week for broadcloths and 4.2 lbs for kerseys per week – the pay was 3d per lb
3d per lb in traditional woolen cloth and 9d for worsted
Rajasthan sits at the northern border of India – subject to outside influence over the years
Every community and tribe has its own distinctive costume
Women – color plays a large role in costume. The dress most commonly worn is a combination of a kurti (upper garment) and ghaghra with a odhna (veil)
Angarkha – sanskrit roots: anga – body, raksha – protection
In Hindu tradition, a stitched garment was considered impure – draping unstitched veils is popular in rural communities
Men’s clothing is an assimilation of numerous historical and foreign influences, more restrained with color than women’s
Upper garment – bandi or kurta (tunic), formal occasions call for the angarkha and achkan or shervani
Mughal Rule –
Ruled over India between 16th and early 19th century
Rulers continued to wear Mongol and central Asian clothing
Rajasthani kingdoms remained intact because rulers made alliances with Mughal emperors
Hindo and Muslim identities integrated and saw a synthesis of the two styles – garments like the jama, choga, and stitched lower garments gained populartiy
British Rule –
British East India Company was set up in 1601 for trade
Clothes were used as a method of Anglicization
Most middle class Indians resisted any change to their attire – assimilation was mainly seen in aristocratic populations
“a vast proportion of the rural population and almost all the female population continued to dress in predominantly Indian styles throughout the period of the British rule.”
In many rural areas, European clothing was considered a violation of caste
In the Swadeshi movement (boycott of British goods) khadi became the symbol of the struggle for freedom from British imperialism and economic exploitation
1947 – India became an independent nation – gained independence from Britain and also from the laws dictated by royalty
Rajasthan came into being in the aftermath of Indian independence – merging of twenty two princely states in a region still referred to by some as Rajputana
Change and current status –
Women’s clothing is in a state of transition – particularly amongst the affluent, educated, or working
Often modern western garments are intermixed with traditional clothing – provides comfort and utility while preserving a cultural identity
 This essay was perfect for learning about the basic timeline of costuming traditions in India. It covered the indigenous garments as well as the traditions that have been adopted from outside cultures – which was helpful to have a guide on how to make distinctions between the two. 
Economics Research:
  • Sharma, Yovesh Chandra. Cotton Khadi in Indian Economy. Navajivan Publishing House, 1999.
(Chapter 6: Technological Developments)
Original form of ginning was by using a slanted plank of wood and metal rod.
Nowadays, cotton is ginned in powered ginning factories
Arrangement for carding cotton has to be made locally because carded cotton cannot withstand long journeys
Gandhi advocated for improved design of the spinning wheel
Improved version of a wheel called ‘Bardoli Charkha’ was created by standardizing parts to increase productivity:
1) the circumference of the driving wheel was fixed
2) Bush bearings were provided in the center of driving wheel to facilitate its easy rotation around the axle of the wheel
3) Spindles with pully were used for spinning to reduce slippage
4) fixed pegs, against which the revolving spindle rested, were replaced by Modhia with grooves for spindle’s smooth movement
5) Spindles of different diameter (numbers) were prescribed for spinning yarn of different counts
6) Flange was provided in the spindle to facilitate proper winding of yarn on it.
7) Cushions of cotton twine were provided in the grooves for spindle’s smooth revolutions.
The traditional wheel was still limited by the revolutions of spindle per minute
A vertical wheel was created to increase RPM called ‘Kisan Charkha’ – further improvement created a foldable version
Because of increase of productivity of the new designs, craftspeople are able to produce more and earn more profit

Ma, Anna. “The Rise of Fast Fashion Retailers and Their Effects on the Price of Clothing Over Time.” May, 2015

Fast fashion can be defined as “cutting edge fashion at affordable prices” (Caro, 2008)
Fast fashion has created a new model of fashion production which churns out new styles constantly throughout the year – this makes the older “seasonal” production model of fashion outdated and uncompetitive
When 75% of the store’s stock changes every month, it provides consumers with a reason to continue returning to the store throughout the season
Because clothes are not meant to last for an entire season, they are able to be made cheaply and offered at more competitive prices
This model creates “perceived scarcity” that encourages consumers to buy products on sight due to the fast turn over of products
Fast fashion is creates to extremes – “cheap fashion” and “high-end fashion” – this divide is symbolic of a widening gap in economic standing. The cheaper fast fashion prices, the more prestigious (and expensive) high-end fashion becomes.
This thesis was useful in helping define fast fashion and its exact economic impacts on the fashion industry. The use of the term “perceived scarcity” was particularly useful in understanding the reasons this particular business model has been so successful in recent years. 
  • Colloredo-Mansfeld, Rudi. “‘Dirty Indians’, Radical Indígenas, and the Political Economy of Social Difference in Modern Ecuador.” Bulletin of Latin American Research 17, no. 2 (1998): 185–205
“Hacendados” – large estate owners
Otavaleños – Indigenous people of the Ecuador Andes
Otavaleños have expanded regional trade through transnational textile merchanting
Indigenous textiles are linked with indigenous inferiority in the white-mestizo culture of Ecuador
“Specifically, the odors, textures, and materials of rural life become racial emblems as the white-mestizo elite constitute themselves and the national authority by pursuing an elusive physical and moral ideal: cleanliness”
“..and clothes stained with sweat demonstrate not just poverty but a moral failing”
Successful indigenous industries are rumored to be a front for narcotic trafficking – material success is seen as a threat to the purity of the white-mestizo national economy
Indigenous Andean group with historical connections to the provincial market town of Otavalo and the surrounding countryside of Imbabura
Most are bilingual in Quichua and Spanish
Otavaleños culture attracts tourism which has allowed them to capitalize on native crafts
They also retail the crafts of other ethnic groups
“Salomon and others have argued that they have preserved core culture values by combining handicraft manufacture with a subsistence economy and a deep commitment to the land.”
The industry of textile trade with an ethnic group known as Caranqui did not start with tourists – they have a long history of being reputed for the artisan crafts
“In the 1920’s, local cottage industry began a cycle of expansion as weavers in the community of Peguche adapter their looms to produce a version of a dense English tweed for Quito markets (Parsons, 1945)”  Important connection with Hebrideans!! – cloth became known as casimires and formed the basis of the pre-tourist market
Weavers spent cloth profits on land to invest in subsistence plots
This was a very interesting perspective on cottage industries and the relationship between cloth and culture. Having no previous academic experience with the indigenous cultures of the Andes, I learned a lot about the relationship between indigenous culture and the white-mestizo population of Ecuador and the role that crafts and textiles have to play in it. 
Plaza de los Ponchos is a “rainbow of textiles”
Otavaleño people make up for approximately 50% of the town’s population – weavers since pre-Incan times
Skills led them to being forced into work in textile factories
Different villages are noted for individual skills
Peguche is celebrated for weaving – use mechanical looms. The most notable textile producer is Artesania El Gran Condor. Wool is spun, natural dyes mixed by hand 
  • Understanding the World Wool Market: Trade, Productivity and Grower Incomes

Wool, cotton, and man-made fibers account for aproximately 98% of world fiber use.

Man-made fibers make up for 60%, cotton 36%, and wool around 2%

Australia is the world’s largest wool producer – accounts for 1/4 of world wool output. China makes up for 16% and New Zealand 11%

Nearly 2/3 of the world’s wool exports are supplied by three countries alone: Australia, New Zealand, UK

China is the dominant importer – also the dominant producer of wool in the spinning and weaving stage

The different stages of wool production and the country’s varying nature of involvement suggest four broad stages of production through which wool passes

Table 1.1  Description of wool outputs in figure 1.1

Wool output

Description

Raw wool

Greasy wool

Raw wool straight from the sheep’s back and containing 20-60% extraneous matter, e.g., dirt, natural grease, dried perspiration and vegetable matter.

Scoured wool

Wool that has been cleaned by scouring process, which removes all extraneous matter from greasy wool except for vegetable matter.

Carbonised wool

Wool that has been treated with sulphuric acid to remove vegetable matter from scoured wool.

Carded wool

Wool that has subjected to carding, whereby fibres are opened out and separated to give a web of fibres, crossed and recrossed.

Combed wool

Wool that has subjected to combing, whereby fibres are made to lie parallel to one another in a rope or combed top.

Wool yarn

Worsted yarn

Yarn in which the fibres are reasonably parallel and that is spun from combed wool.

Woollen yarn

Yarn that has been carded, condensed and spun on woollen machinery from carded wool.

Wool fabric

Worsted fabric

Fabric manufactured from worsted yarn.

Woollen fabric

Fabric manufactured from woollen yarn.

Wool garments

Worsted garments

Garments manufactured from worsted yarns and fabrics.

Woollen garments

Garments manufactured from woollen yarns and fabrics.

Source: Bell (1970).

Because of the difference between worsted and woolen fabrics, there are two sub-production systems within the broader apparel wool production system.

Worsted – longer yarn, surface that is smooth to touch

Woolen – shorter yarn, give fabric a hairy touch

Finer wool fetches a higher price, broad wool is used for nonapparel, longer fibers enter the worsted system, shorter fibers the woolen system

(The Australian Wool Industry)

Australia outputs 50% of the world’s apparel wool

The relative importance of the wool industry in Australia has been on a consistent downward trend

Lower wool prices have encouraged farmers to diversify crops

In 2003, 85% of sheep in Australia were Merino

This essay was interesting in regards to just how big the textile chain is. Before reading this, I did not realize how few countries were responsible for the worldwide wool industry.

John and Elizabeth Macarthur established a colonial wool industry in Australia in the early 19th century with a rare breed of Spanish sheep.
Wool was an easier product for Australian colonies to cultivate and export back to the British Isles than crops were
“In 1815 Britain was getting most of its wool for its textile mills from Spain (over 3,000 tons) and German (1,400 tons) annually with Australia only supplying 33 tons of wool. By 1849, this had completely turned around. The Australian colonies became the dominant suppliers, selling England a staggering 16,300 tons of wool that year. This was more than all of Europe’s production combined.”
This article was useful in understanding how wool became predominantly an Australian export. I would like to find more information about how that affected local wool industries in other countries. 
Agriculture Research:
  • Sharma, Yovesh Chandra. Cotton Khadi in Indian Economy. Navajivan Publishing House, 1999.
(Chapter 4 – Raw Materials)
Hygroscopic – tending to absorb moisture from the air
One-third of cotton cellulose is available for holding water – readily absorbs sweat
 Before the commercialization of cotton growing, small amounts of cotton were grown in kitchen gardens or courtyards
Cotton yields more yarn of better quality when spun fresh off of the plant
“In almost all states (in India) the soil and climate are suitable for the growth of *different* varieties of raw cotton” – Indian Central Cotton Commitee
Main cotton growing states are: Andhra, Pradesh, Haryana Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu
Four attributes go to deciding the grade of cotton: 1) fiber length 2) fiber fineness 3) fiber strength 4) fiber maturity
Average quality cotton 80% of fibers should be fully mature
“Godown” – a warehouse
  • Khan, M. Gufran, G. Daniel, M. Konjit, A. Thomas, S. S. Eyasu, and G. Awoke. “Impact of Textile Waste Water on Seed Germination and Some Physiological Parameters in Pea (Pisum Sativum L.), Lentil (Lens Esculentum L.) and Gram (Cicer Arietinum L.).” Asian Journal of Plant Sciences, 2011. http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=DJ2012067442.

“Continued population growth, increased per capital water consumption and increased water requirements for industry and irrigation have also resulted in considerable decrease of usable water resources” (Naddafi et al, 2005)

Textile finishing industries consume about 100 L of water to process about 1 kg of textile material

Waste water contains high heat, high pH levels as well as dyes, bleaches, etc.

“Since the disposal of textile effluent is a great concern in urban areas, applying the textile waste water to agriculture fields instead of disposing off in lakes and rivers can make crops grow better due to presence of various nutrients like N, P, Ca, Mg, etc (Kanan et al, 2005, 2003)” This seems like a terrible idea. 

Materials and Methods – 

Examined on three leguminous crops – pea (pissum sativum l.), lentil (lens esculentum l.), and gram (cicer arietiman l.)

Seeds were suppled by a seed supplier located in Debrezeit town

Waste water was collected from Hawassa textile factory

Potted plants were provided with 1/2 strength Hoagland solution

 Conducted during the year 2009-2010
With 10% textile effluent concentration pea plants exhibited 130g root dry weight as compared with 120g root dry weight at control
When effluent concentration increased, however, biomass production were greatly decreased
Decreasing response of crops to higher concentration of effluent was observed in all three crops
Overall performance pea>gram>lentil in tolerance of effluent
Greening of plants increased when plants were treated with low concentrations of effluents (10 to 25%)
Higher concentrations were inhibitory to greening
Industrial effluents have been found to increase the accumulation of various heavy metals like Fe, Mn, Zn, Ni, Pb Cu in soil and NR activity
This science experiment was actually incredibly alarming to me. The conclusion that these scientists came to might indicate a bit of arm-twisting in regards to the sustainability and environmental impacts of this practice. The fact that increased concentration = decrease in plant productivity shows to me that the water they are dumping onto the crops is toxic in high concentrations. If they continue this practice, the waste will build up in the soil and could pose a serious threat to the nutritional value of crops and the well being of people in the area. I plan to look more deeply into this study to see if it has continued to be looked into/carried out. 
  • Harle, K. J., S. M. Howden, L. P. Hunt, and M. Dunlop. “The Potential Impact of Climate Change on the Australian Wool Industry by 2030.” Agricultural Systems 93, no. 1–3 (2007): 61–89
  • Ingram, Mrill. “Producing the Natural Fiber Naturally: Technological Change and the US Organic Cotton Industry.” Agriculture and Human Values 19, no. 4 (December 1, 2002): 325–36. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021140001193.
Organic cotton production experienced a boom in the early 1990s, but has since fallen steeply and has not been able to rise back to previous levels
Cotton has been established as the natural fiber in the minds of consumers
Cotton crops are the top users of chemical pesticides – accounting for 25% of all agricultural insecticide use worldwide
Because of selective breeding for yield and spinning quality, cotton now is “grown in environments that harbor pests and diseases against which it has no inherent ability to compete.”
It is estimated that an average acre of cotton crop in California receives some 300 pounds of synthetic fertilizers
The most significant stage of the cotton garment in terms of environmental impact occurs during laundering after clothing has been made and purchase – this is due to the dyeing and shedding
Cotton has become increasingly associated with loss of soil fertility, water pollution, pesticide poisoning, pesticide resistance, etc.
In the 1980’s, organic and non-treated cotton was heavily marketed through “eco-boutiques” that catered to environmentally-minded consumers.
In contrast to the organic cotton market, organic food production has risen steadily by 20% each year
It is hypothesized that consumers already believe that cotton is a more natural, environmentally friendly alternative to synthetic fibers, so they do not understand the necessity for synthetic fibers
Sociotechnical systems – in organizational development is an approach to complex organizational work design that recognizes the interaction between people and technology in workplaces. The term also refers to the interaction between society’s complex infrastructures and human behavior.
Approaching cotton growing as a “sociotechnical ensemble” allows for looking at both the biological aspects of the cotton plant as well as the economic position of cotton farmers and how it relates to organic farming
“On another side, multiple firms take the farm’s product and process it in a myriad of ways to add value. Goodman et al. have analyzed these activities as constituting the efforts of industrial capital to reduce the importance of natural in agricultural production and to control it”
Organic farmers are limited to certain strains of cotton – most of which have been selected for large-scale, monocrop agriculture.
Organic cotton must meet the expectations of conventional fiber quality and performance
Must work within state policies such as organic standards and boll weevil eradication programs, which requires that they either spray pesticides on, or destroy, infested crops
Organic cotton is considered “risky” so it can be a challenge to secure loans
More hands on experience is required with organic cotton due to the lack of spraying for insects and disease – requires hands on management
This article covered in depth reasoning as to why the organic cotton industry has not taken off in the way that the organic food industry has. I found the analysis to be very informing, and it continued to make me wonder why we even rely on cotton at all to produce fiber.
Production Research:
  • Mackenzie, Judith. The Intentional Spinner. Adams Media, 2015.
(The Nature of Fibers)
Protein fibers are the easiest to dye with
Medullated (hollow core) fibers accept dye less easily than solid fibers
“During the passage up the follicle, some cells become harder and some become softer. The harder cells fold the softer cells over, creating a ripple that will be a visible crimp when the new fiber emerges from the skin. Crimp is unique to wool fibers and is what gibes wool its amazing resilience” (p. 25)
Sheep are niche animals – they and their wool adapt to their climate and environment
Bronze age sheep originally shed on their own – now they are bred to be white to take dye and no longer shed in order to increase wool production
“Improved” sheep means that fleece shedding genes have been suppressed – have a white coat, are even in staple type from tip to tail, and fleece grows continuously
Skirting – removing edges of fleece
Retaining lanolin increases yarns water resistant ability
Mohair – fiber from angora goats. Angora goats to well in dry, hot climates. South Africa is the largest producer of mohair, followed by Texas, and Turkey
“kid” refers to the fineness of mohair
Cashmere – from several different varieties of goats
This book helped me to visual the basic concepts of spinning and wool. I found the information on the different kinds of wool to be particularly helpful.

Sow seeds in April

Flax grows to full height after 3 months – harvest

After harvest, soak in water for two weeks. (Used stones to weigh it down)

If the skin breaks when bending the fiber, retting is complete

Next, spread and dry from 7 – 11 days

After drying, lift into bundles

Break the skin off fibers – crimping

Brushing – similar to wool picking, clears off the rest of the skin

After this, the fiber is ready for spinning

This video was incredibly helpful and informative. It was really interesting to see flax processed in a way that was relatively ‘primitive.’ It was a surprisingly holistic take on linen production for such a short video. While it looked like it might be time consuming, it appears completely possible to process quite a bit of flax in an efficient manner by hand. 

 

Flax is the only natural plant fiber still grown in Western Europe
Europe produces 120,000 tons of flax per year on 75,000 acres of land
Plant must be uprooted, not cut as fibers are in the roots as well
Mechanical harvesting pulls & lays flax out on fields
While the flax lays out, it is exposed to rain and soil that help break down the pectins that bind the fibers to the skin
After this, they are gathered and bundled
Scutching & hacking separate fibers from the stem
Short fibers are called tow, long fibers called line
Fine, long fibers are spun wet to create a neat thread, while short fibers are spun dry to look more coarse
This video was very useful to watch right after the previous video on hand-crafted linen production. It was particularly interesting that while small scale flax is actually soaked in water, mass produced linen is simply left to weather the elements. This takes a bit more time for the retting to be complete, but allows for less labor. 
 
Modern Fashion Industry Research:
(Episode 1)
Documentary narrated/most interviews conducted in the Irish language
People often say that Ireland does not have a distinctive fashion because of outside influence
The national costume is simple but requires extensive machinery (i.e. tweed)
Historically, clothing often expressed marital status and gender identity
Because Ireland has a rich history associated with an oral culture and story telling ability, those aspects are also part of Irish dress
Silk became a prominent industry in the Liberties in Dublin in the 18th century – over 3000 silk looms existed in that area alone, but the industry died out in the 19th century
Silk gowns were a symbol of financial credibility. When a women went out in a silk gown (often upwards of 10,000 euro), she was ensuring to the public that her husband was financially stable.
In lower class Ireland, clothing was deeply tied to folklore – beliefs were woven into the cloth. For instance, red was tied into children’s clothing to keep away the faeries. People wore new clothing to mass first to get them blessed.
Today, Irish designers face stereotypes on what is “Irish” and what is not. It has become a focus of many to continue looking to the talent and craftsmanship of the past while also paving a new way that isn’t inherently tied up with Irishness.
(Episode 2)
The Tweed Project – a fashion design company inspired by tradition tweed of the Aran Islands with modern design, the design is still remnant of old looks – not formfitting or tailored, rather designed for purpose (‘Tweed tracksuit’)
‘Crios’ belt inspired designs – hint at tradition in contemporary dress
Style was very important to people from the Aran islands, but traditional dress has now died out
The old ways/beliefs were literally woven into the fabric of traditional dress
Orla Kiely – Irish designer inspired by nature and color of the West of Ireland
Donegal yarns – globally recognized yarn industry that started with cottage weavers from Co. Donegal, today they are used in companies like Burberry and Ralph Lauren – the old terminology from the cottage industry days is still used in the modern day mill as a tribute to their heritage

Khadi became the fabric of choice at Rajasthan Heritage week.

Under Ghandiji’s influence, khadi turned from a humble peasant’s fabric to a political symbol – a unifying thread that brought all Indians together.

Rajasthan Heritage Week was created to promote traditional crafts and handmade textiles that are unique to the state – invited 18 of the state’s top fashion designers and award winning Rajasthani weavers – used heritage fabrics

Bangladesh-based fashion designer Bibi Russel opened the show. Used handwoven khadi to highlight winter line.

Kaaryah – ethically-concious brand that highlights khadi use – “Conscious”

Pallavi Murdia presented designs through five stories of Rajasthan: Shwet, Haldi-Gulabi, Moriyo, Sunehri Raat, and Sindoor – used mirror work and traditional embroideries

“Khadi is a fabric that is redolent of freedom, individuality and of the fact that we are Indians” – Hemant Trivedi

  • Sandhu, Arti. Indian Fashion: Tradition, Innovation, Style. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014.

The 19th century onward saw an intense hybridizations of styles in India

Indian clothing contained a vast arrangement of both stitched and unstitched garments prior to British colonization
Tension of choosing between Indian and Western dress is still “acutely felt in India”
Clothing exhibits differences in social life and etiquettes between Europe and India
British tried to distance themselves from Indian dress by prohibiting assimilation of both parties
“Throughout the colonial period, when “Westernization” was perceived by many as “civilisation”, members of the Indian elite had faced the problem of how far they should Westernize their dress. At a national level, this problem revolved around a conflict between European and Indian values and tastes. At a more personal level, it touched on notions of loyalty to family, self, caste, religion, region, and race.” (Tarlo, 1991: 134)
British rule saw to the rise of the middle-class in India: the middle-class was intended to be a class of imitators and not originators of new values or methods
Indians who worked for British employers had the dilemma of “modernizing” under Western ideas of dress and being ridiculed by more conservative Indians.
Oftentimes, men would adopt full European dress but would retain some form of traditional head covering
Women tended not to assimilate with clothing – did not find it attractive or appealing. They did, however, shift fabric preference to mill-made cloths and imported satins, velvets, and artificial silks
British dyes became popular to suit the vibrant tastes of women at the time
Women came under scrutiny by both the British empire and Indian reformists in the late 19th century
Changed levels of modesty for elite and middle-class women – made the sari less see through
“it is very often the responsibility of women to carry national culture on their bodies by wearing national or ‘traditional’ clothing” (p.34)